History of the Aztec Empire :: Pre-Columbian History Culture

History of the Aztec Empire The center of the Aztec civilization was the Valley of Mexico, a huge, oval basin about 7,500 feet above sea level. The Aztecs were formed after the Toltec civilization occurred when hundreds of civilians came towards Lake Texcoco. In the swamplands there was only one piece of land to farm on and it was totally surrounded by more marshes. The Aztec families somehow converted these disadvantages to a mighty empire known as the Aztec Empire. People say the empire was partially formed by a deeply believed legend. As the legend went, it said that Aztec people would create an empire in a swampy place where they would see an eagle eating a snake, while perched on a cactus, which was growing out of a rock in the swamplands. This is what priests claimed they saw when entering the new land. By the year 1325 their capital city was finished. They called it Tenochtitlan. In the capital city, aqueducts were constructed, bridges were built, and chinapas were made. Chinapas were little islands formed by pilled up mud. On these chinapas Aztecs grew their food. The Aztec Empire included many cities and towns, especially in the Valley of Mexico. The early settlers built log rafts, then covered them with mud and planted seeds to create roots and develop more solid land for building homes in this marshy land. Canals were also cut out through the marsh so that a typical Aztec home had its back to a canal with a canoe tied at the door. In the early 1400s, Tenochtitlan joined with Texcoco and Tlacopan, two other major cities in the Valley of Mexico. Tenochtitlan became the most powerful member of the alliance. Montezuma I ruled from 1440 to 1469 and conquered large areas to the east and to the south. Montezuma's successors expanded the empire until it extended between what is now Guatemala and the Mexican State of San Luis Potosi. Montezuma II became emperor in 1502 when the Aztec Empire was at the height of its power. In 1519, the Spanish explorer Hernando Cortes landed on the East Coast of Mexico and marched inland to Tenochtitlan. The Spaniards were joined by many of the Indians who were conquered and forced to pay high taxes to the emperor. Montezuma did not oppose Cortes because he thought that he was the God Quetzalcoatl. An Aztec legend said that Quetzalcoatl was driven away by another rival god and had sailed across the sea and would return some day. His return was predicted to come in the year Ce Acatl on the Aztec Calendar.

Those who give up liberty for the sake of security deserve neither libe

Those who give up liberty for the sake of security deserve neither liberty nor security National Identification Card (NID) is not a new idea to the American Public or its politicians. The NID has been up and down the political stream as a means of fighting terrorism, welfare fraud, illegal immigration, crime, census â€Å"error†, and a vast variety of other so called crimes that you can think of. The NID once again rising up-stream after the terrible attack on the American soil as (again) the means to protect the American Public but is it capable of doing all it claims to or as a matter of facts it will make us more vulnerable to identity theft and more chaos? Now with the public still shaken after the Sept-11 attack and spooked by a growing number of anthrax cases, the clamor for tighter security is growing. Proven of ID is required at almost everywhere, closed streets, cop on every corner of the street, citizens keeping their door locked and watching out for suspicious act of potential terrorist. So we look for ways to reassure ourselves and to soothe complicated new fears. Once again, the idea of national ID card is floating upstream and presumably would separate or point out law-abiding citizens from potential terrorist. But NO, the national ID card would rob us off our constitutional freedoms. It will not protect us from terrorist. It would bring us into a deep dream of being secured. It will not stop the stream of illegal immigration. It would widen the door to the invasive thugs. â€Å"Law enforcement would be allowed to stop anyone who was being suspicious and this is where Mandana says there could be a problem. This is where har assment and discrimination could come to place† [1]. It would cost us the tax payers billions of... ...question that can you deal with all the problem and false hope that nID will bring to you and the public. National ID is not the answer or solution to our national security, illegal immigration, anti-terrorist, and protection for our citizens. There are other solutions to these problems that would go beyond the scope of my paper here but national ID is absolutely not the one. REFERENCES: [1] Donna J Groff – post on Discussion 3/4/02 http://anegada.cudenver.edu/csc4735/discuss/msgReader$369 [2] Clair Wolfe http://www.backwoodshome.com/columns/wolfe0111.html [3] William Safire http://nytimes.com/2001/12/24/opinion/24SAFI.html [4] Peter G Neumann and Lauren Weinstein http://www.csl.sri.com/users/neumann/insiderisks.html [5] Phuong Kieu – my posting on Discussion 2/20/02 http://anegada.cudenver.edu/csc4735/discuss/msgReader$294

We Have the Right to Use Cell Phones While Driving :: Argumentative Persuasive Argument Essays

We Have the Right to Use Cell Phones While Driving Imagine driving in a car and not being able to adjust your radio, roll down your window, or even talk to your passenger. This may sound a bit extreme, but little by little a person's rights are being infringed upon by those who think that using a cellular phone while driving should be illegal. Using a cell phone while driving is no different than a mother tending to her children in the backseat, a person eating in a car, or even someone engrossed in conversation with their passenger. Can these rights be taken away, can common sense be legislated? Cell phones first became available in the year 1984 and have only grown in popularity since (Stutts et al.). Today there are over one hundred and twenty-eight million users (Pickler). In recent years, cell phones have been in the spotlight for causing drivers to be distracted, resulting in a number of crashes. New York has become the first state to ban the use of hand-held phones when driving on public highways. This new law went into effect on December 1, 2002. Drivers may only use a hand held phone "in an emergency, to call for help or to report a dangerous situation." However, drivers are allowed to use hands free devices such as speaker phones ("New. . ."). Currently, there are thirty-eight other states with bills like this one in the process (Breslau and Naughton 46). Many are upset about these laws because data on the actual number of cell phone related car accidents is not complete. According to a spokeswoman for Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association, " There ar e not a lot of substantial findings" (Pickler). It's too early to tell if New York's new law is lowering the number of deaths caused by cell phones (Alonso-Zalvidar). Although around 2,600 people die each year from cell phone related accidents, a cell phone user only has around thirteen chances in a million of dying in a cell-phone related automobile accident. This is three times less than the chances of being killed by not wearing a seatbelt. Other motorists and pedestrians have a four in one million chance of being killed by a driver using a cell phone; the chance of getting killed by a drunk driver is four times as high (Pickler). Granted, every single human life is important, but these figures show that cell phones pose only a very small risk.

Diabetes in Developing Countries

Diabetes in developing countries Deaths from diabetes, which has two primary forms including type1 and type2 diabetes, have become a significant problem in the world. Nowadays, diabetes is still a disease not having precise method to cure. As a result of surplus blood sugar, it has a negative effect on the human body and leads to several complications, such as vision problems, kidney damage, nerve damage and heart and circulation problems (Pollock, 2006). Consequently, the increased risk of these diseases makes it become one of the major causes of deaths.For example, according to the WHO (2011), more than 346 million people were diagnosed with it worldwide and between 50% and 80% of them died from CVD. With the development of health care, the mortality in developed countries was decrease, while the situation in developing countries is so serious that 80% of diabetes deaths exist in low and middle income countries (WHO, 2011). For instance, such countries in The Middle East, Pacific I slands and Southeast Asia had 115million diabetic patients in 2000 and the WHO (2011) predicts that the number will double between 2005 and 2030.To mitigate the effects of diabetes, the causes of it need to be detected. Type 1 diabetes, which is known by lacking insulin production, results from several causes and possible factors. First, genes attribute mainly to it. More than 18 genetic locations related to it have been discovered by researchers and they have found that people with an especially HLA complex which means human leukocyte antigen, are more likely to develop it. A good illustration of it is other autoimmune disorders may caused by such complexes, such as rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, or juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (Smith, 2010).The second factor is a viral infection which may affects the disease by attacking immune system. For instance, Kamiah (2010) states that a series of diseases from gastrointestinal problems to myocarditis can created by the coxsa ckie B virus. In addition, there are some special conditions which may attribute to it. For example, certain drugs including corticosteroids, beta blockers, and phenytoin, rare genetic disorders such as Klinefelter syndrome and Wolfram syndrome, and hormonal disorders such as acromegaly and hyperthyroidism all raise the possibility of it (Simon, 2009).It has been one of the most increased diseases worldwide, however, type 2 diabetes is more common. Unlike type 1 diabetes, causes of type 2 diabetes, which results from the ineffective use of insulin (WHO,2011), usually are multifactorial. First, being overweight or obese is a primary reason for it. The increased risk of it may bring several complications including heart disease, stroke and some cancers. A good illustration of this is 82% of people with it are caused by overweight or obese and such complications (Vann,2009).The second is genetic factors which have been found more than 10 genic material associated with it. For example, there are more possibilities for people to get it if they have close relatives having it, such as parents and siblings. Thirdly, ethnic origin also plays a part in it. For instance, NHS (2010) points out that people with it from South Asian, African, and Middle Eastern are six times likely than people in the UK. In addition, incorrect living styles such as poor eating habits, too much TV time and physical inactivity also have a negative effect on it.It is often not a single factor but two or more causes above combined to lead to it. According to the CDC (2010), such combinations give rise to approximately 95% of it in the U. S. As can be seen from data, diabetes in developing countries has become a huge problem and the mortality from it has a continued increase worldwide. Not only government, but people should change their attitudes and aware the importance in order to prevent it.

There are two levers for moving men. One is fear and the other, interest

The interest of the students is a one wild, untamed and elusive matter which controls the path to where the instruction will fall. It is a feather which has the power to tip the balance of the weighing scale between success and failure. It is a determining factor to whether the approach will be effective or not. So for the teaching-learning process to be productive and utterly successful, the teacher, instructor or facilitator must capture this intangible creature and keep a firm hold of it for it may fuel the engine of your train named â€Å"Instruction† towards the station on the avenue of accomplishment and goals. Or it may head for the worse and suffer a catastrophic derailment which is our dear students’ ignorance of what we intend to teach them which defines a real teaching fiasco. To remedy such dilemma, you must lubricate your gears with the grease of â€Å"Variations†. With doing this, we are aiming to smoothen the rotation of wheels of the lesson on the axles of the objectives we have set for the meeting. By means of conducting varied teaching methods, incorporated with series of corresponding assessment tools with appropriate instructional materials, we may ensnare and nail our students’ interest on the lesson so deep that maneuvering our way to success will be as easy as eating pie during tea time. Once we have mesmerized our students’ attention, we can gain an overwhelming boost of motion and accelerate the pace of productivity of our instruction so effective we can attain, or even surpass our educational objectives and come up with a much desirable outcome. Our teaching methods and strategies shall depend on the capabilities and needs of our students. The learners shall be at the apex of our considerations for they are the center of the teaching-learning process. The effectivity of our strategies depends on how much our learners gained from us. We are much likely to be triumphant if our students acquired a ton of knowledge from us. It will mean that we have succeeded on our aim to distribute our ideas to them. This is a way of flourishing their minds to which we are going to reap a bountiful harvest of creativity and imaginative thought in the future. Just like in farming and agriculture, in order for our farmers to produce more crops, they practice different kinds of methodologies in planting, maintaining and harvesting, integrating different sorts of techniques to come up with a new innovative way to cultivate crops. Then if we try to transfer this thought in Education, our teachers arrive at the idea of using different types of teaching approaches and techniques so that they can increase the level of the Philippine Education compared to the overwhelming standards of International Schooling. By integrating different ways of teaching, we envision to proliferate the amount of knowledge we give our students because through the use of varied methods, we can maximize our very limited time for instruction.

Redeeming Qualities of Characters

Redeeming Qualities of Characters from â€Å"The Outcasts of Poker Flat† In â€Å"The Outcasts of Poker Flat†, each â€Å"immoral† character has redeeming qualities. Mother Shipping, a brothel owner, is the first to make the greatest sacrifice for another shows one of her redeeming qualities and her motherly nature. The Duchess, a prostitute, shows her redeeming qualities through being almost like an elder sister to Piney. And John Croakers, who despite his better knowledge of the situation, continues on with the group of outcasts and their young friends and continues to elf until his unexpected end.Despite their lowly characteristics, these three characters put forth amazing redeeming qualities which make them much higher than the hypocritical townspeople who banished them from Poker Flat. Mother Shipping is banished from Poker Flat for being a brothel owner. Despite this low standing part of her she has several redeeming qualities that redeem her from her past mistakes. The first redeeming quality she shows is her motherly nature toward not only Piney but the Duchess as well. Such as when she â€Å"requested Piney not to â€Å"chatter† (p. 88) when Piney said reckon now you're used to fine things at Poker Flat† (p. 88) this being her protecting the Duchess from embarrassment and protecting Pine's innocence. She also seems to show this side of her to Croakers as when she mentions that â€Å"el ‘didn't say ‘cards' once† during that evening† (p. 488) almost like a mother doting on the fact that her son had interest in something else besides his interest such as videotapes today, Sauerkraut's equivalent being card games. Another redeeming quality she has is her sacrificing herself for Pine's sake. At midnight on the tenth day she called Croakers to her side† (p. 490) and tells him that she is dying.She tells him not to â€Å"waken the kids† (p. 490) and take the bundle she is using as a pill ow. Within the bundle is her rations for the past week and she tells Croakers to ‘me to the (p. 490) and points at Piney. After she has done this she turns to the wall and passes away in her sleep quietly. This Mother Spittoon's top redeeming quality since she makes the greatest sacrifice for Piney and suffers for a week before dying Just for the young girl. This also plays into her quality f being motherly and trying to protect Piney by saving her rations for the girl knowing that they would not make it and run out food in due time.The Duchess is banished from Poker Flat for being a prostitute. Despite this immoral occupation she has several redeeming qualities. One of her redeeming qualities is that she protects Pine's innocence. She protects Pine's innocence by not telling her of what she was back in Poker Flat. She goes along with keeping the secret of not only her own past but Mother Spittoon's and Sauerkraut's when Croakers says mind out the truth about us all when they find out anything,† he added significantly, â€Å"and there's no good frightening them now† (p. 488).The Duchess's other redeeming quality is that she distracts Piney from their current situation so she won't be worried. She distracts the girl by directing â€Å"Piney in the rearrangement of the interior† of the cabin â€Å"with a taste and tact that opened the blue eyes of that provincial maiden to their fullest extent. † (p. 488). This action of the Duchess completely brings Pine's attention away from what is going outside and the events tit Uncle Billy and focuses her on the cabin and its furniture as well as the Duchess's knowledge of â€Å"fine things†.Croakers is banished from Poker Flat for gambling. One of Sauerkraut's much smaller redeeming qualities is when he insists on exchanging â€Å"his own riding horse, â€Å"Five Spot,† for the sorry mule which the Duchess rode. † (p. 485) so as to cheer not only her up but put the res t of the party into â€Å"closer sympathy' (p. 485), or a better mood. Another redeeming quality he has is that he stays with the party and â€Å"the thought of deserting his weaker and more pitiable companions never perhaps occurred to him. (p. 486) even though the others are all drunk and he, since drinking interferes with the mind, is completely sober. Another redeeming quality he has is that he doesn't think Billy has stolen their rides but he had instead â€Å"wandered from the camp and had accidentally stampeded the animals. † (p. 487). Another redeeming quality he has, which takes place in his past, is that he gave Tom back his money after a game of poker, or as he says â€Å"a â€Å"little game† which got him â€Å"some forty dollars† (p. 86) from the boy, but instead of keeping it he takes Tom and tells him o'er a good little man, but you can't gamble worth a cent. Don't try it over agar† (p. 486) and gives him his money back. Another redeeming quality Croakers has is that he gives Tom the snowshoes he has. Though Croakers could have used the shoes himself he â€Å"showed him the pair of snowshoes, which he had fashioned from the old pack-saddle. † (p. 490) and gives them to him telling the young man to use the shoes to save Piney to go to Poker Flat. Croakers even shows him the way far as the canon† (p. 90). Sauerkraut's final redeeming quality is that at the end even Hough he had made it he kills himself because the others had not, except for Tom, which made him â€Å"once the strongest and yet the weakest of the outcasts of Poker Flat. † Even though he had been strong through it all and had made it out of the cabin and got Tom to Poker Flat, he could not go on knowing that the others had died not just from the conditions but for each other and with nothing else to do, with nothing else in his hand, he ended the game that he called life.Mother Shipping, a brothel owner, makes the greatest sacrifice f or Piney and her motherly nature being her most distinguishing redeeming qualities. The Duchess, a prostitute, shows her redeeming qualities by protecting Pine's innocence and distracting her from the â€Å"streak of bad luck† the party came upon. And John Croakers, who despite his better knowledge of the situation, continues on with the group of outcasts and their young friends by staying with them, helping them, and not accusing others by what they had done in the past all the way up until his unexpected end which is another one of his redeeming qualities.Despite these characters lowly characteristics, these three put forth amazing qualities, actions which many could not have done, which make them much higher than the hypocritical townspeople who banished them from Poker Flat and cleanse them of their past mistakes allowing them all to pass on in peace which made it so that you could scarcely tell who had sinned.

What Challenges Does the Traditional Public Administration

WHAT CHALLENGES DOES THE TRADITIONAL PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ENCOUNTER IN A CHANGING PUBLIC SECTOR ENVIRONMENT The traditional model of public administration (TPA) remains the longest standing and most successful theory of management in the public sector which pre-dominated for most of the 20th century.The TPA can be characterized as an administration under the formal control of the political leadership which was based on a strictly hierarchical model of bureaucracy, staffed by permanent, neutral and anonymous officials, motivated only by the public interest, serving any governing party equally, and not contributing to policy but merely administering those policies decided by the politicians. Its theoretical foundations were mainly derived from Woodrow Wilson and Frederick Taylor in the United States, Max Weber in Germany, and the Northcote–Trevelyan Report of 1854 in the United Kingdom.It is now being replaced by the New Public Management (NPM) due to the fact that the traditio nal model has been discredited theoretically and practically. The adoption of new forms of NPM means the emergence of a new paradigm in the public sector. This new paradigm poses a direct challenge to several of what had previously been regarded as fundamental principles of TPA. The aim of this presentation is to discuss the challenges that TPA encounters in a changing Public Sector environment. The discussion will focus on hierarchical structures, bureaucracy, political control, rigidity, one best way, meritocracy and technological change.The term administration is narrower and has a more limited function than that of management and in consequence, changing from public administration to public management means a major change of theory and of function. According to Hughes (2003:6), â€Å"public administration is an activity serving the public, and public servants carry out policies derived from politicians. † The Oxford dictionary defines administration as, â€Å"an act or p rocess of organising the way that something is done. According to Coulter (1996:8) â€Å"management refers to the process of getting activities completed efficiently and effectively with and through other people. From these various definitions it is argued that, administration essentially involves following instructions and providing service, while management involves the achievement of results and personal responsibility by the manager for results being achieved. The terms administration and management are not synonymous, neither is their application to the public sector. These two elements were not necessarily present in the traditional administrative system. Public administration focuses on processes, procedures and rules of etiquette, while public management involves much more.Instead of merely following instructions, a public manager focuses on achieving results and taking responsibility for doing so. It is this paradigm shift from Traditional Public Administration to the New Public Management which has exposed the weaknesses of the Traditional Public Administration Model as discussed below. The use of hierarchical structures which were not necessarily the best or efficient forms of organisations if comparing output and input was one of the problems or inadequacies of the Traditional Public Administration model.However, the hierarchical system meant that everyone knew his or her place and extent of authority. Someone is always technically accountable for all actions, from the lowest level to the highest. The system was reasonably efficient and effective in a narrow sense and meant instructions were carried out, especially when given clearly. It was also reasonably free from the temptations of diverting, eg, public funds for the personal use of the bureaucrat. When tasks were administrative and relatively simple, when the environment was stable, the system worked well.On the contrary, this system is not workable in big organisations. Many strata in a hier archical structure have a potential of slowing done work progress. The results or output take long to be realised. The Kavran Report of (1989:16) reported on hierarchical delays in the public service especially when processing business documents, water and electricity bills requests and others. According to Vecchio, (1991:510), to change the existing public system into one that is speedy, risk-taking, output-oriented, innovative and efficient requires a total change in organizational culture.The focus of subsequent reforms in the public service has been to move away from the idea of a rigid and bureaucratized career service, towards a more fluid structure. An example is that Foreign Direct Investment into Zimbabwe has been put under one roof to speed up processing and approval of projects. Bureaucracy is another problem associated with the TPA model. In small organisations like Civil Aviation of Zimbabwe, bureaucracy is ideal for control of human resource due to its defined reportin g and communication channels, it allows for certainty.Work is standardised due to laid down procedures, rules and regulations. The spans of control are scientifically calculated. However hierarchical structures are not good for management, is usually slow in moving, that is, work takes long to be accomplished and innovations are almost nonexistent. Any deviation from the norm through innovation can be punishable by law if ever anything goes wrong and investigations indicate that there was a deviation from the stipulated regulations or work procedures.However, Weber, in Hughes(2003:35) noted that, â€Å"every bureaucracy seeks to increase the superiority of the professionally informed by keeping their knowledge and intensions secret†, adding that the concept of official secrecy is the specific invention of bureaucracy. This concern still exists today, for example, in the ZRP any press release is done through their spokes persons. The Kavran report of 1989:17 reported that ther e were difficulties in obtaining information from the government. The same report indicated that one had to make innumerable visits and memorandum to get information even on a simple matter.There are now marked changes in the external environment functions with the greater external focus on NPM, through both strategy and managing of external constituencies, than was ever the case with TPA. Public service anonymity has certainly declined. Public servants are much freer to speak out in public, to appear at professional forum, to write articles in journals and generally to be visible and be public figures. The problem of political control or interference in public administration was also found to be one of the of TPA model challenges.Politics and administration are interlinked. Politicians make policies and administrators implement the policies. However, politicians are not necessarily administrators whereas public administrators are professionals in their work and are supposed to be a political; hence they need to be separated. Dahl (1998:59) argues that, â€Å"politics is ubiquitous†. This means that politics cannot be completely separated from administration. Hughes (2003:32) argues that, â€Å"The reform movement in the United States was not able to separate policy from administration, or politicians from administrators.It was only able to clarify the point where political appointments to the public service were to be separated from career appointments. † According to (Hughes 2003:26) â€Å"politicians should rule while public officials should do their bidding. Political offices should be filled competitively in the political arena whereas; bureaucratic offices should be filled competitively in the bureaucratic arena. Political officials should be selected on the basis of their political competence; bureaucratic officials should be selected on the basis of their bureaucratic competence.The separation of political and career routes should be inst itutionalised by legal or constitutional prohibition on concurrent office holding and interchange. Politicians should be judged by the electorate or their political peers whereas officials should be judged by their political overseers or their bureaucratic peers. Political office should be of limited tenure and subject to frequent elections and bureaucratic office should be of unlimited tenure, subject to good behaviour. According to the Zimbabwe Public Service Act, the Public service functions independently and is not answerable to the minister, however the minister can direct the commission on certain issues. Political interference has raised its head in a number of areas of the Zimbabwe Public Services like, the mining sector (ZISCO) where ESSAR was awarded a tender to run the mine and politicians interfered resulting in the withdrawal of the tender. The TPA model was rigid and bureaucratic, narrowly focused and preoccupied with structures and process..Rigidity to rules, regulati ons and order of doing work has a tendency of stifling innovation which is necessary for work effectiveness and efficiency. Robert Merton (1968: 260) argued that, â€Å"rigid adherence to rules could have unanticipated consequences, including a reduction in efficiency. The rigidity and bureaucracy of the system posed a problem to the NPM system which is result based and managers are accountable for their action. To maintain one’s job, is now dependant on one’s performance. The new pubic management encourages flexibility which is intertwined with innovation and increased output.The TPA model assumed there was ‘one best way’ of administering. Gulick’s POSDCORB and Taylor’s scientific management were ‘popular manifestations of this one best way theorising. ’ According to Stillman, (1991: 9) in Hughes (2003:25), the one best way, â€Å" is a methodology by which a few simple nostrums/remedies were followed in all circumstances. â⠂¬  Hughes (2003:33) argues that, â€Å"the one best way was determined by examining all the steps involved in a task, measuring the most efficient and, most importantly, setting out this method as a set of procedures.In the public services, the procedure manuals became ever larger with the method for dealing with every conceivable contingency spelt out in great detail. Once this was done the task of the public official was purely administrative, merely involving consultation of the manual and following the procedures laid down. There was little thought involved and no creativity other than that of finding the right page of the manual. Administrators by definition have no responsibility for results; one best way thinking allowed them to evade responsibility altogether. The results or output was also ignored by this notion of one-best way.This is prevalent in most government departments of Zimbabawe especially the military where things are done according to the book. There is very little room for innovations and accountability as demanded by the new public system. Meritocracy/ Professionalism. The TPA was based on non professional ways of recruitment. It was once common for those aspiring for employment by the state to resort to patronage or nepotism, relying on friends or relatives for employment, or by purchasing offices. This is still prevalent or being practised in most developing countries Zimbabwe included.This compromises standards, affects output and de-motivates professionals resulting in high labour turnover. The Zimbabwe Public Service Act requires that people be employed according to their professional qualifications or their merit. For example in the health sector, for a doctor to practice must be licensed, the same applies with lawyers. Weber formulated the theory of bureaucracy, the idea of a distinct, professional public service, recruited and appointed by merit, politically neutral, which would remain in office throughout changes in governmen t.One of the major challenges of TPA was that it was manual based hence slow moving. According to Muid, (1994:125). Technological change affects management, including the management of government. This should be regarded as one of the main driving forces both towards new forms of public management and away from traditional bureaucracy. With the adoption of forms of e-government (electronic government) technologically driven change is likely to accelerate.The use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) such as distributed computer systems, Internet linkages, new databases could lead to a re-conceptualization of the very way that bureaucracies work. The changes have the potential to be beneficial, even though there are issues of privacy and security yet to be dealt with. It is inarguable that management of the public sector changes with the kinds of information technology currently available. In Zimbabwe the Presidential Computerisation programme is a typical example of p ublic sector effort.In conclusion, the traditional model of administration was an outstanding and widely emulated by governments all around the world . However with passage of time the TPA has been increasingly superseded by the NPM. The new model is not fully in place, there is now a greater focus on results rather than process, on responsibility rather than its evasion and on management rather than administration. This transition has its own challenges that it encounters during the process. The challenges include bureaucracy, political interference, meritocracy/professionalism and one best way and technological changes.It was only later,when NPM come into existence and managers became responsible for results, that there was any real thought that different methods could lead to different results and those methods and actions should be tailored to circumstances. According to Behn (1998:140), in reality there is no one best way but many possible answers. | Nostrum ineffective remedy: a remedy for a social, political, or economic problem, especially an idea or plan that is often suggested but never proved to be successfulMicrosoft ® Encarta ® 2009.  © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved. ||